do cnidarians have muscles{ keyword }

Biol. Jena. Although some of them potentially represent bell imprints of jellyfish, others probably have a different origin (e.g. Despite the few muscle cell types found in cnidarians, there is a wide diversity . My suggested revisions follow. Insights into the skeletonization, lifestyle, and affinity of the unusual Ediacaran fossil Corumbella. Zoomorphology 107, 319337 (1988), Boelsterli, U. (XLS 90 kb), Steinmetz, P., Kraus, J., Larroux, C. et al. My only suggestion for revision/improvement is the following: Near the beginning of the introductory paragraph starting with line 60, cite the study of Van Iten et al., (2016) on key cnidarian and putative cnidarian macrofossils (including Haaotia) from the Ediacaran of North and South America (you know the paper). J. Exp. The muscles around the bell contract, squeezing out the water and propelling the jellyfish forward, upward or downward. Early euarthropods that co-existed with lobopodians and scalidophoran worms (e.g. PubMed Central Cnidarians are radially and biradially symmetric. (PDF 16393 kb), This Excel file contains accession numbers, gene model names, fully spelled species names and the sequences of DNA oligonucleotides used to clone genes. Structure and expression of conserved Wnt pathway components in the demosponge Amphimedon queenslandica . (D) The enlarged view of (C) showing the possible rings of nematocysts on the tentacles. Compare the differences in sexual reproduction between . 32, 17921797 (2004), Castresana, J. Abbreviations: al, apertural lobe; cm, circular (coronal) muscle; en, endoderm; eu, exumbrella; ga, gastrovascular cavity; lm?, possible longitudinal muscle; ma, manubrium; me, mesoglea; pe, periderm; rc, radial canal; su, subumbrella; tb, tentacular bud; te, tentacle; ve, velum. In medusae, locomotion is achieved by the rhythmic pulsation of circular sheets of epithelial striated muscles located around the bell margins and lining the subumbrellar surface. Class Hydrozoa contains tiny predatory animals which live in fresh water (hydras) or marine environments. A new scyphozoan from the Cambrian Fortunian Stage of South China. Although jellyfish are mainly water, they do have nerves, reproductive cells and muscle. In all three classes of cnidarians that have medusoid members, activation of the swim musculature originates in marginal nervous tissues: the marginal rhopalia in scyphomedusae and cubomedusae, and a compressed network in the inner nerve ring of hydromedusae (see Satterlie 2002 ). (A) General view of oral side. 216, 709720 (2006), Leys, S. P. & Degnan, B. M. Cytological basis of photoresponsive behavior in a sponge larva. Gene 232, 1123 (1999), Sutter, S. B., Raeker, M. O., Borisov, A. Thank you for submitting your article "Muscle systems and motility of early animals highlighted by cnidarians from the basal Cambrian" for consideration by eLife. analysed the A. queenslandica data. 6, e1001208 (2010), Article A muscle-specific transgenic reporter line of the sea anemone, Nematostella vectensis . During the polyp stage, the organisms are sessile, or stuck to a surface, and during the medusa stage, the organisms are free-moving. In Paucipodia from the Chengjiang Lagersttte (see Vannier and Martin, 2017; see Figure 4figure supplement 2C-E), a connecting strand runs between the terminal claw of the limbs and the area surrounding the gut and is interpreted here as a possible retractor muscle (see analogues in extant onychophorans De Sena Oliveira and Mayer, 2013). 2022. Evans SD, Hughes IV, Gehling JG, Droser ML. Great Barrier Reef, Queensland The phylum Cnidaria is made up of four classes: Hydrozoa (hydrozoans); Scyphozoa (scyphozoans); Anthozoa (anthozoans); and Cubozoa (cubozoans). This file contains Supplementary Figures 1-11 comprising: the evolutionary origin of muscle components (Supplementary Figure 1); supporting molecular phylogenies (Supplementary Figures 2 and 7) and protein domain analyses of muscle components (Supplementary Figure 8); SEM pictures of T. wilhelma apopyle cells (Supplementary Figure 4) and additional myhc (Supplementary Figures 3, 5, 6) and z-disc gene orthologs expression data (Supplementary Figures 9-11). 214, 352359 (2004), Craig, R. & Woodhead, J. L. Structure and function of myosin filaments. In situ hybridization of starlet sea anemone (Nematostella vectensis) embryos, larvae, and polyps. United States (B) General view of live specimen in sea water. They also display a well-preserved network of circular fibers (Figures 1 and 2AE), tentatively interpreted as coronal muscles by Wang et al., 2017 in a pilot study. CAS The goal of this review is to discuss recent cellular and molecular data providing information on the evolution of a hypothetical prebilaterian Bauplan (Fig. Cnidarians are invertebrates such as jellyfish and corals. Neurobiol. Google Scholar, Burton, P. M. Inisghts from diploblasts; the evolution of mesoderm and muscle. Mostly marine animals, the cnidarians include the corals, hydras, jellyfish, Portuguese men-of-war, sea anemones, sea pens, sea whips, and sea fans. Cnidarians are a little more complex than sponges. Kesidis G, Slater BJ, Jensen S, Budd GE. Do cnidarians have a skeletal system? The ultrastructural similarity between striated skeletal muscles in higher bilaterian animals, such as humans and insects, and non-bilaterian animals, such as jellyfish, suggests a common evolutionary origin of this important contractile cell type. Consistently, jellyfish orthologues of a shared set of bilaterian Z-disc proteins are not associated with striated muscles, but are instead expressed elsewhere or ubiquitously. (C) General view of aboral side. Individual muscle cells are relatively long and may occur in dense tracts in jellyfish or sea anemones. Conulariids have been resolved as stem-group Scyphozoa (Van Iten et al., 2006) and have very likely Precambrian ancestors such as Vendoconularia triradiata and Paraconularia sp. The 12 fossil specimens studied here have the diagnostic features of post-embryonic olivooids (Dong et al., 2013; Dong et al., 2016; Han et al., 2013; Han et al., 2016b; Wang et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2020), such as an ovoid shape, pentaradial symmetry and the presence of a periderm, apertural lobes, exumbrella, perradial ridges, and interradial furrows (Figure 1figure supplements 1 and and2;2; Figure 2A-E; Figure 2figure supplement 1). Create your own unique website with customizable templates. 3) In addition, a conclusion of the present study (lines 189-191) is that, within cnidaria, medusae are primitive, and then the transition to a polyp stage occurs. In the interests of transparency, eLife publishes the most substantive revision requests and the accompanying author responses. PubMed That some early cnidarians had an atypical pentamerous symmetry remains plausible although requiring explanation (see Gershwin, 1999). . In a few cnidarians, smooth muscles are found totally embedded in the mesoglea, having lost contact with the epithelia (see below for more details). Microsc. 29, 531544 (2012), Philippe, H. et al. Proc. 8, 150173 (2006), Larroux, C. et al. Han J, Li G, Kubota S, Ou Q, Toshino S, Wang X, Yang X, Uesugi K, Masato H, Sasaki O, Kano H, Sato T, Komiya T. Internal microanatomy and zoological affinity of the early Cambrian. Modern medusae feed on small soft-bodied prey by using nematocyst-laden tentacles and oral arms that convey food to the mouth (Brusca et al., 2016). Open Access (I) Transverse section through body wall showing circular muscles overlying longitudinal ones. Locomotion Medusae swim by jet propulsion ( see below Tissues and muscles ). The genome sequence of Schizosaccharomyces pombe . The Cambrian conundrum: early divergence and later ecological success in the early history of animals. Muscle systems and motility of early animals highlighted by cnidarians from the basal Cambrian. Chen J, Zhou G. The biology of the Chengjiang fauna. Van Iten H, Leme JM, Rodrigues SC, Simes GM. The considerable ultrastructural similarity of striated muscles between these animal groups is thought to reflect a common evolutionary origin1,2. Their external annulations may represent underlying muscle fibers (Wang et al., 2020), or, more likely, anchoring features of nematocysts. Muscles in cnidarians are extensions of the bases of ectodermal and endodermal cells. Cnidarians mostly have two basic body forms: swimming medusae and sessile polyps, both of which are radially symmetrical with mouths surrounded by tentacles that bear cnidocytes. New algorithms and methods to estimate maximum-likelihood phylogenies: assessing the performance of PhyML 3.0. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. ( B) Comb jelly from the phylum Ctenophora They belong to Sinaster petalon Bioinformatics 21, 21042105 (2005), Thompson, J. D., Gibson, T. J., Plewniak, F., Jeanmougin, F. & Higgins, D. G. The Clustal_X windows interface: flexible strategies for multiple sequence alignment aided by quality analysis tools. Cnidarians do not have a brain such as mammals do. USA 97, 1255912564 (2000), Article Cnidaria Gut & Function | Why Don't Cnidaria Have a Coelom? | Study.com Phylum Cnidaria includes animals that exhibit radial or biradial symmetry and are diploblastic, meaning that they develop from two embryonic layers, ectoderm and endoderm. 37, D211D215 (2009), Finn, R. D. et al. To obtain 1, pe37 (2008), Clark, K. A., McElhinny, A. S., Beckerle, M. C. & Gregorio, C. C. Striated muscle cytoarchitecture: an intricate web of form and function. (B) Close-up view of (A) showing the possible longitudinal muscle bands marked by the two rows of giant white arrows. Cnidarians have separate sexes and many have a lifecycle that involves two distinct morphological formsmedusoid and polypoidat various stages in their life cycles. Qingdao, For example, the medusae of hydrozoans (Figure 2GI; Figure 3A) display a continuous network of circular striated and radial smooth muscles covering the underside of their bell (subumbrella). We thank J Sun and J Luo for the preparation of microfossils and SEM technical assistance, and the CT (University of Lyon) for access to electron microscopy. Jellyfish have a ring of muscle that encircles the bottom of . We thank Evelyn Houliston (LBDV, Villefranche-sur-mer) for insightful remarks and corrections, and the three referees: Min Zhu (Institute of Vertebrate Palaeontology & Palaeoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences), Heyo Van Iten (Department of Geology, Hanover College, Indiana) and Bruce Lieberman (Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Kansas). Their work seems thorough and well-executed, and their interpretations, both of the documented fossil material and of the broader implications of their findings, seem reasonable and well supported by the available evidence. These cells are present around the mouth and tentacles, and . Such contractions may have resulted in pumping and engulfing sea water containing potential food particles. Mol. First representative of the Ediacara fauna in the Vendian of the Russian Platform (upper Precambrian). Front. CAS Scale bars represent: 200 m in (A), (C); 50 m in (B); 25 m in (D). A hydrostatic skeleton is maintained by the internal pressure of fluids within the organism. If you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate. Dev. Figure 1figure supplement Figure 1figure supplements 1A. As the prey passes through digestive juices break it down and the tissue absorbs the food. Some authors (e.g. Since Cnidarians do not have a mesoderm, they do not have any true muscle. cnidarians The larger species use poisonous cells in their tentacles to immobilize their prey. J. Mol. J. Biol. 282, 1426 (2005), Article 11 September 2022, Nature Communications Pan B, Topper TP, Skovsted CB, Miao L, Li G. Occurrence of. The genome of the social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum . Zapata F, Goetz FE, Smith SA, Howison M, Siebert S, Church SH, Sanders SM, Ames CL, McFadden CS, France SC, Daly M, Collins AG, Haddock SHD, Dunn CW, Cartwright P. Phylogenomic analyses support traditional relationships within Cnidaria. Ortega-Hernndez, 2015) is an informal group of ecdysozoans with an annulated cuticle and paired soft legs (lobopods), that is crucial for understanding the remote ancestry of euarthropods. We favor an alternative option. Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology. & Beckmann, F. The contractile sponge epithelium sensu latobody contraction of the demosponge Tethya wilhelma is mediated by the pinacoderm. (AF) and myoepithelial muscle network in extant hydrozoan jellyfish by fluorescence microscopy (GI). (B) Details of fiber bundles around aperture (location indicated in A). Han et al., 2016a) and mid-Cambrian (Marjum Lagersttte; coronal muscles, Cartwright et al., 2007) are likely to have co-opted this basic system for more diverse functions such as swimming within the water column (e.g. We thank Alexandre Jan for raising the medusae and the Paris Aquarium for providing the Eirene and Chrysaora polyp stains. 201, 323338 (2001), Sar, M., Sar, A., Nickel, M. & Brmmer, F. Three new species of Tethya (Porifera: Demospongiae) from German aquaria Stuttg. We describe here secondarily phosphatized muscle fibers preserved in three dimensions, in post-embryonic stages of olivooids from the early Cambrian (Fortunian) Kuanchuanpu Formation. Sorbonne Universit, CNRS, Laboratoire de Biologie du Dveloppement de Villefranche-sur-Mer (LBDV) Anatomy of cnidarians | Britannica The muscles of olivooids seem to be more developed and concentrated around the bell margin, as seen in modern jellyfish, such as Clytia, Pelagia, and Chrysaora (Figure 2G-I; Figure 2figure supplement 2). Careers, Unable to load your collection due to an error. Cnidarians come in various body shapes and have different ways of living. Microscopic series of functional units (sarcomeres) that characterize striated muscles and give them a typical striated appearance (Figure 2G-I; Figure 2figure supplement 2) are not discernible in the muscle network of Cambrian olivooids, making it impossible to class them as striated or smooth (Schmidt-Rhaesa, 2007). Nucleic Acids Res. (C) Annulated trunk. Naturkd. The current, well-accepted, hypothesis is that olivooids developed from an ovoid post-embryonic form (present material) into a conical corrugated polyp-like structure (Bengtson and Yue, 1997; Dong et al., 2016; Han et al., 2013; Liu et al., 2014a; Steiner et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2020). The circular muscle system is visible through the translucent periderm. performed the bioinformatic and phylogenetic analyses, most N. vectensis experiments and cloned two A. queenslandica myhc genes. Hoyle G, Williams M. The musculature of Peripatus and its innervation. These new findings prompted us to re-examine and integrate fossil data obtained from other early Cambrian groups such as ecdysozoans (e.g. Costello JH, Colin SP. Wang and colleagues reported the muscle details in exceptionally preserved fossils of olivooids, a group of early cnidarians, from the basal Cambrian of China (535 million years ago). Ivantsov AY. Polyps are generally sedentary. Evol. (E) Oral view showing the external morphology of ELISN111-54. Comparative genomics of Ceriporiopsis subvermispora and Phanerochaete chrysosporium provide insight into selective ligninolysis. Evol. The muscles that jellyfish use to propel themselves can only get them a short distance. George H Perry, Nature 451, 783788 (2008), Ruiz-Trillo, I. et al. energy cost) than advantages to the animal. (A), (B) Simplified radial sections through body. We thank George Perry as the Senior Editor, Tara Bristow, Emma Darkin, Sam Porteous and Nicola Adamson as the Editorial Assistant for correcting and improving our manuscript. (D) Artistic reconstruction of 535-million-year-old olivooid cnidarians showing eggs (the prehatched, background), post-embryonic (foreground) and polyp (background) stages. Leclre L, Rttinger E. Diversity of cnidarian muscles: function, anatomy, development and regeneration. 535 Ma) that have direct equivalent in modern medusozoans. Abbreviations are as follows: pe, periderm. Universit Pierre et Marie Curie and Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Biologie du Dveloppement UMR 7009, 06230 Villefranche-sur-Mer, France , GeoBio-Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitt Mnchen, Richard-Wagner-Strasse 10, Mnchen, 80333, Germany, Bayerische Staatssammlung fr Palontologie und Geologie, Richard-Wagner-Strasse 10, Mnchen, 80333, Germany, You can also search for this author in Cnidarian bodies have two or sometimes three layers. Google Scholar, Hammel, J. U. Zur Funktion des Wasserleitungssystems und der Entwicklung von Knospen in Schwmmen. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the Lyon). Liu AG, Matthews JJ, Menon LR, McIlroy D, Brasier MD. (C) In oral view. Moreover, no echinoderm has a muscle system comparable to that of olivooids (this paper). (E) Muscles (introvert). China, 5 Nature Rev. The Kuanchuanpu Formation (ca. Liu Y, Li Y, Shao T, Zhang H, Wang Q, Qiao J. Quadrapyrgites from the lower Cambrian of South China: growth pattern, post-embryonic development, and affinity. These fiber rings run around the oral aperture, have a consistent thickness and do not seem to be interrupted (Figure 1figure supplement 1; Figure 2A, D, Figure 2figure supplement 1A, B). Jellyfish have a ring of muscle that encircles the bottom of the bell, which is the main component of the jellyfish body. In summary, the close-knit fibrous network described here in post-embryonic olivooids is the oldest record of a muscular system in cnidarians and more generally in animals. Struct. Because of this difference, poriferans do not have a nervous system or muscles for locomotion, which cnidarians have. cnidarian , or coelenterate, Any of about 9,000 species of mostly marine aquatic invertebrates, constituting the phylum Cnidaria (or Coelenterata), that are unique in possessing specialized stinging cells (cnidocytes) borne on the tentacles. Nature 476, 320323 (2011), Hunter, S. et al. The partial loss of the periderm and perradial apertural lobes in numerous specimens reveals a fine network of underlying closely packed, circular fibers, that are best developed around the oral aperture where they form four or five separate concentric bundles (individual thickness between 9 and 15 m), each consisting of numerous (possibly up to eight) individual fibers (Figures 1B,C,2B,C,E and F). The contractile fibers act against the fluid-filled gastrovascular cavity. Fedonkin MA. For example, sponges have myocytes around the osculum that play a role in expelling wastes (Bagby, 1966). All studied fossils come from phosphatic limestones collected from the Kuanchuanpu Formation at the Shizhonggou section (Ningqiang County, Shaanxi Province, China; see Figure 1figure supplement 4). They have radial symmetry and tissues. Nature 435, 4357 (2005), Fritz-Laylin, L. K. et al. 25, 48764882 (1997), Guindon, S. et al. and J.U.H. The Chlamydomonas genome reveals the evolution of key animal and plant functions. Abbreviations: cm, circular muscle; cu, cuticle; ec, ectoderm; en, endoderm; ep, epidermal layer; gu, gut; lc, lobopod claw; lim, limb muscle; lm, longitudinal muscle; lo, lobopod (soft leg); mb, manubrium; me, mesoglea; om, oblique muscle; oo, oral opening (bell margin); pc, primary cavity filled with fluid; rc, radial canal; se, sediment; tc, terminal claw. China, 2 Tokyo, What Muscles Do Sit-Ups and Crunches Work?. Nike UK Dev. 3.23. C.L. Their movements are not complex because they do not have a brain. Biostratigraphy (Anabarites Protohertzina Arthrochities zone; Qian, 1977; Qian, 1999) indicates that these rocks correspond to the Meishucunian Stage that is the equivalent of the lowermost Cambrian Terreneuvian Stage. Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Writing review and editing. A. et al. CAS They move by epithelial muscular cells (cells in the epidermis that can contract and are made up myosin and actin. (H) The enlarged view of (G) showing the circular muscles. Abbreviations: afl, adradial fold lappet; bm, bell margin; cm, circular muscle; mb, manubrium; nu, nucleus; pal, perradial apertural lobe; pfl, perradial fold lappet; smf, smooth (radial) muscle fiber; stf, striated (circular) muscle fiber; te, tentacle *, perradii; , interradii. Scale bars: 10 mm in (E), 5 mm in (C), 1 mm in (D), 200 m in (A) and 100 m in (B). Cyclomedusa; Ukraine, Russia; see Zaika-Novatskiy et al., 1968; Fedonkin, 1981). Cell Biol. 535 Ma, lowermost Cambrian Fortunian Stage; Shaanxi Province, south China) yields a great variety of three-dimensionally preserved microfossils including cnidarians such as Olivooidae (Dong et al., 2013; Dong et al., 2016; Han et al., 2013; Han et al., 2016b; Liu et al., 2014b; Liu et al., 2017; Steiner et al., 2014). Sci. Their analysis supports a convergent-evolution model for striated muscles. Detailed analyses using X-ray microtomography have revealed that the internal organization of olivooids shared important features with that of cnidarians and especially medusozoans (see Han et al., 2013; 2016; Dong et al., 2013; 2016; Wang et al., 2017). Evol. 17, 540552 (2000), Abascal, F., Zardoya, R. & Posada, D. ProtTest: selection of best-fit models of protein evolution. Cold Spring Harb. (AC) ELISN052-33. Received 2021 Oct 14; Accepted 2022 Jan 11. The tentacles of modern cnidarians have longitudinal muscles but lack circular fibers (Hyman, 1940). Raikova EV. Google Scholar, Hooper, S. L. & Thuma, J. (D) Muscles (trunk). Deuterostomes also evolved muscle systems during the Cambrian. designed the study, analysed data and wrote the paper. Abbreviations: cm, circular muscle; pal, perradial apertural lobe; *, perradii; , interradii. Cnidarians are generally accepted to be the sister group to bilaterians (Brusca et al., 2016; Erwin et al., 2011; Leclre and Rttinger, 2016; Zapata et al., 2015) and are represented by a huge variety of jellyfish, sea anemones, corals, sea fans, hydrozoans (including the colonial siphonophores) and less familiar parasitic groups (Raikova, 1988). J. Morphol. Nucleic Acids Res. and U.T. swimming, feeding, respiration, etc.). The Amphimedon queenslandica genome and the evolution of animal complexity. The evolution of complex multicellularity in animals, MRTF specifies a muscle-like contractile module in Porifera, A myxozoan genome reveals mosaic evolution in a parasitic cnidarian, Evolution of the N-Terminal Regulation of Cardiac Troponin I for Heart Function of Tetrapods: Lungfish Presents an Example of the Emergence of Novel Submolecular Structure to Lead the Capacity of Adaptation, Investigation of structural proteins in sea cucumber (Apostichopus japonicus) body wall. They belong to the phylum Cnidaria. Discovery of the oldest bilaterian from the Ediacaran of South Australia. Paired features interpreted as tentacular buds occur around the oral rim of some olivooids (Han et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2020). (H) Transverse section through body wall across cuticle, epithelial cells, and circular muscles. U.S.S.R. Gehling JG, Jensen S, Droser ML, Myrow PM, Narbonne GM. None of these typical anatomical and developmental features is found in Cambrian olivooids. I dont want to say this is impossible, but this isnt what is usually assumed. We dont reject the possibility that radial muscles were presented. Although satellite cells have yet to be identified in cnidarians, muscle plasticity (e.g., de-and re-differentiation, fiber repolarization) in a regenerative context and its potential role during . 2020M672013), the Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. PubMed Central Pennsylvania State University, The anatomy of most cnidarians includes tentacles that are armed with nematocytes, stinging cells that eject poison, as well as an umbrella-shaped body in medusae, but tubular structure for polyps. Do Cnidaria have an internal skeleton? - Short-Question omuscular, which means that they are small muscles near the outer edge of the fire coral. 276, 45274530 (2001), Korn, E. D. Coevolution of head, neck, and tail domains of myosin heavy chains. (G) General view of oral side. These 1-to-4-m-thick individual fibers show oblique interconnections (Figure 2G-I; Figure 2figure supplement 2), and sparser radial smooth fibers run perpendicular to them (Leclre and Rttinger, 2016). Proc. Cnidarians share many features with other animals, such as an outer layer of skin, muscle, fat, and bone; internal organs including a heart, blood vessels, lungs, stomach, intestines, liver, and urinary tract; sexual organs; and a brain. B. Invertebrate muscles: thin and thick filament structure; molecular basis of contraction and its regulation, catch and asynchronous muscle. Green and blue in (GI) correspond to actin (phalloidin) and DNA (Hoechst) staining. Comparable fibers occur all over the body, but seem to be sparser toward the aboral pole (Figure 1figure supplement 1B, C and Figure 1figure supplement 2A-F; Figure 2D) and not organized in well-defined bundles (Figure 1D-G; Figure 2figure supplements 1 and and2;2; Figure 2A). from the terminal Ediacaran of Russia (Van Iten et al., 2005; Ivantsov, 2017) and Brazil (Van Iten et al., 2014), respectively. Here we show that a muscle protein core set, including a type II myosin heavy chain (MyHC) motor protein characteristic of striated muscles in vertebrates, was already present in unicellular organisms before the origin of multicellular animals. 86, 72127 (2008), Article Nature 466, 720726 (2010), King, N. et al. In this phylogenomic study, Ulrich Technau and colleagues show that core muscle proteins are present in unicellular organisms, such as sponges, that do not have true muscles. Department of Earth Science & Astronomy, Graduate School of Arts & Sciences, The University of Tokyo Liu Y, Shao T, Zhang H, Wang Q, Zhang Y, Chen C, Liang Y, Xue J. Authors Lucas Leclre 1 , Eric Rttinger 2 Affiliations We thank X-G. Zhang for kindly providing images of Cambrian lobopodians. 207, 45154524 (2004), Putnam, N. H. et al. The .gov means its official. Trends Genet. Cell 140, 631642 (2010), Fernandez-Fueyo, E. et al. PubMed Sinigaglia C, Peron S, Eichelbrenner J, Chevalier S, Steger J, Barreau C, Houliston E, Leclre L. Pattern regulation in a regenerating jellyfish.

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